Skip to content

Tools

Positioning guide

Part position, central ray, centering point, technique and SID for every limited scope view. Technique ranges are approximate adult DR values; follow your clinic's chart.

Upper Extremity & Shoulder Girdle

Finger PA

Position: Palmar surface on IR; digit fully extended and isolated.
CR: Perpendicular
Centering: PIP joint of affected digit
kVp / mAs: 50–55 / 1–2
SID: 40"

Finger oblique

Position: 45° rotation; digit parallel to IR.
CR: Perpendicular
Centering: PIP joint
kVp / mAs: 50–55 / 1–2
SID: 40"

Finger lateral

Position: True lateral; affected digit isolated, others flexed.
CR: Perpendicular
Centering: PIP joint
kVp / mAs: 50–55 / 1–2
SID: 40"

Thumb AP · Roberts

Position: Internally rotate hand; posterior thumb on IR.
CR: Perpendicular (Roberts: 15° proximal, centered to 1st CMC)
Centering: 1st MCP joint
kVp / mAs: 50–55 / 1–2
SID: 40"

Thumb PA / lateral

Position: PA with hand in lateral; true lateral of thumb.
CR: Perpendicular
Centering: 1st MCP joint
kVp / mAs: 50–55 / 1–2
SID: 40"

Hand PA

Position: Palm flat; fingers slightly spread.
CR: Perpendicular
Centering: 3rd MCP joint
kVp / mAs: 55–60 / 2–3
SID: 40"

Hand oblique

Position: 45° external rotation from PA; digits parallel to IR.
CR: Perpendicular
Centering: 3rd MCP joint
kVp / mAs: 55–60 / 2–3
SID: 40"

Hand lateral · Fan lateral

Position: Lateromedial (ulnar side down); digits fanned and parallel to IR.
CR: Perpendicular
Centering: 2nd MCP joint
kVp / mAs: 55–60 / 2–4
SID: 40"

Wrist PA

Position: Elbow 90°; hand pronated; fingers slightly flexed.
CR: Perpendicular
Centering: Midcarpal area
kVp / mAs: 55–60 / 2–3
SID: 40"

Wrist oblique

Position: 45° external rotation from PA.
CR: Perpendicular
Centering: Midcarpal area
kVp / mAs: 55–60 / 2–3
SID: 40"

Wrist lateral

Position: Elbow 90°; true lateral; ulna down.
CR: Perpendicular
Centering: Wrist joint
kVp / mAs: 60–65 / 3–4
SID: 40"

Scaphoid PA · Ulnar deviation

Position: PA wrist with ulnar deviation to elongate scaphoid.
CR: Perpendicular (or 10–15° toward elbow)
Centering: Scaphoid (anatomic snuffbox)
kVp / mAs: 55–60 / 2–3
SID: 40"

Scaphoid PA axial · Stecher

Position: PA wrist; IR or fist elevated 20°, or CR angled.
CR: 20° toward elbow if IR is flat
Centering: Scaphoid
kVp / mAs: 55–60 / 2–3
SID: 40"

Carpal tunnel · Gaynor-Hart

Position: Hyperextend wrist; rotate hand 10° internally.
CR: 25–30° to long axis of the hand
Centering: 1" distal to base of 3rd metacarpal
kVp / mAs: 60–65 / 3–5
SID: 40"

Forearm AP

Position: Arm extended; epicondyles parallel to IR; include both joints.
CR: Perpendicular
Centering: Mid-forearm
kVp / mAs: 60–65 / 3–4
SID: 40"

Forearm lateral

Position: Elbow 90°; epicondyles perpendicular; thumb up.
CR: Perpendicular
Centering: Mid-forearm
kVp / mAs: 60–65 / 3–4
SID: 40"

Elbow AP

Position: Arm fully extended; epicondyles parallel to IR.
CR: Perpendicular
Centering: Mid-elbow joint
kVp / mAs: 60–65 / 3–5
SID: 40"

Elbow lateral

Position: Elbow 90°; humerus and forearm on same plane.
CR: Perpendicular
Centering: Mid-elbow joint
kVp / mAs: 60–65 / 3–5
SID: 40"

Elbow external oblique

Position: 45° external rotation; radial head free of ulna.
CR: Perpendicular
Centering: Mid-elbow joint
kVp / mAs: 60–65 / 3–5
SID: 40"

Elbow internal oblique

Position: 45° internal rotation; coronoid in profile.
CR: Perpendicular
Centering: Mid-elbow joint
kVp / mAs: 60–65 / 3–5
SID: 40"

Radial head axiolateral · Coyle

Position: Elbow 90°; hand pronated.
CR: 45° toward the shoulder
Centering: Radial head
kVp / mAs: 65–70 / 4–6
SID: 40"

Coronoid axiolateral · Coyle

Position: Elbow 80°; hand pronated.
CR: 45° away from the shoulder
Centering: Coronoid process
kVp / mAs: 65–70 / 4–6
SID: 40"

Humerus AP

Position: Arm abducted slightly; epicondyles parallel; include both joints.
CR: Perpendicular
Centering: Mid-humerus
kVp / mAs: 70–75 / 6–10
SID: 40"

Humerus lateral

Position: Internally rotate arm; epicondyles perpendicular.
CR: Perpendicular
Centering: Mid-humerus
kVp / mAs: 70–75 / 6–10
SID: 40"

Transthoracic humerus · Lawrence

Position: Affected arm against IR; opposite arm raised; breathing technique.
CR: Perpendicular (10–15° cephalad if needed)
Centering: Surgical neck
kVp / mAs: 75–85 / 20–40
SID: 40"

Shoulder AP external

Position: Erect or supine; arm externally rotated; epicondyles parallel.
CR: Perpendicular
Centering: 1" inferior to coracoid
kVp / mAs: 70–80 / 8–16
SID: 40"

Shoulder AP internal / neutral

Position: Internal rotation (epicondyles perp) or as-presented trauma neutral.
CR: Perpendicular
Centering: 1" inferior to coracoid
kVp / mAs: 70–80 / 8–16
SID: 40"

Glenoid AP oblique · Grashey

Position: 35–45° posterior oblique; scapular body parallel to IR.
CR: Perpendicular
Centering: 2" inferior and 2" medial to superolateral border of shoulder
kVp / mAs: 70–80 / 10–16
SID: 40"

Scapular Y

Position: 45–60° anterior oblique; affected side against IR.
CR: Perpendicular
Centering: Scapulohumeral joint
kVp / mAs: 70–80 / 12–20
SID: 40"

Inferosuperior axial shoulder · Lawrence

Position: Arm abducted 90°; external rotation if tolerated.
CR: 25–30° medially
Centering: Axilla / glenohumeral joint
kVp / mAs: 70–75 / 8–12
SID: 40"

Outlet / coracoacromial arch · Neer

Position: 45–60° anterior oblique (Y position).
CR: 10–15° caudad
Centering: Superior margin of humeral head
kVp / mAs: 70–80 / 12–20
SID: 40"

Bicipital groove · Fisk

Position: Patient leaning forward; humerus 10–15° to IR, or supine tangential.
CR: Perpendicular to groove / 10–15° posterior
Centering: Bicipital groove
kVp / mAs: 65–75 / 6–10
SID: 40"

Clavicle AP

Position: Erect preferred; arms at sides; chin raised.
CR: Perpendicular
Centering: Mid-clavicle
kVp / mAs: 70 / 8–12
SID: 40"

Clavicle AP axial

Position: Erect; shoulders relaxed.
CR: 15–30° cephalad
Centering: Mid-clavicle
kVp / mAs: 70–75 / 8–12
SID: 40"

AC joints AP · Pearson

Position: Erect; with and without weights; both joints on one IR if possible.
CR: Perpendicular
Centering: MSP at level of AC joints
kVp / mAs: 65–75 / 8–12
SID: 72"

Scapula AP

Position: Arm abducted 90°; elbow flexed (stop-sign).
CR: Perpendicular
Centering: 2" inferior to coracoid, 2" medial to lateral border
kVp / mAs: 75–80 / 10–16
SID: 40"

Scapula lateral

Position: 45–60° anterior oblique; arm across chest or behind back for body vs acromion.
CR: Perpendicular
Centering: Mid-vertebral border of scapula
kVp / mAs: 75–80 / 12–20
SID: 40"

Lower Extremity

Toe AP

Position: Plantar surface on IR; toes extended.
CR: 10–15° toward the calcaneus
Centering: MTP of affected toe
kVp / mAs: 50–55 / 1–2
SID: 40"

Toe oblique / lateral

Position: 30–45° rotation; true lateral of affected digit.
CR: Perpendicular
Centering: MTP (oblique) or PIP/IP (lateral)
kVp / mAs: 50–55 / 1–2
SID: 40"

Foot AP · Dorsoplantar

Position: Plantar surface on IR; knee flexed.
CR: 10° toward the heel
Centering: Base of 3rd metatarsal
kVp / mAs: 55–65 / 2–4
SID: 40"

Foot medial oblique

Position: 30–40° medial rotation.
CR: Perpendicular
Centering: Base of 3rd metatarsal
kVp / mAs: 55–65 / 2–4
SID: 40"

Foot lateral · Mediolateral

Position: Lateral recumbent; plantar surface perpendicular to IR.
CR: Perpendicular
Centering: Medial cuneiform / base of 3rd MT
kVp / mAs: 60–65 / 3–4
SID: 40"

Calcaneus axial · Plantodorsal

Position: Supine; dorsiflex foot; toes toward ceiling.
CR: 40° cephalad
Centering: Base of 3rd metatarsal
kVp / mAs: 70–75 / 6–10
SID: 40"

Calcaneus lateral

Position: True lateral; plantar surface perpendicular.
CR: Perpendicular
Centering: 1" inferior to medial malleolus
kVp / mAs: 60–70 / 4–6
SID: 40"

Ankle AP

Position: Leg extended; foot dorsiflexed; toes straight up.
CR: Perpendicular
Centering: Midway between malleoli
kVp / mAs: 60–65 / 3–5
SID: 40"

Ankle mortise

Position: 15–20° internal rotation until intermalleolar plane is parallel.
CR: Perpendicular
Centering: Midway between malleoli
kVp / mAs: 60–65 / 3–5
SID: 40"

Ankle oblique

Position: 45° internal rotation.
CR: Perpendicular
Centering: Midway between malleoli
kVp / mAs: 60–65 / 3–5
SID: 40"

Ankle lateral · Mediolateral

Position: True lateral; dorsiflex foot; fibula posterior to tibia.
CR: Perpendicular
Centering: Medial malleolus
kVp / mAs: 60–65 / 3–5
SID: 40"

Tib/fib AP

Position: Leg extended; femoral condyles parallel; include both joints.
CR: Perpendicular
Centering: Mid-shaft
kVp / mAs: 65–70 / 4–8
SID: 40–44"

Tib/fib lateral

Position: True lateral; femoral condyles superimposed; include both joints.
CR: Perpendicular
Centering: Mid-shaft
kVp / mAs: 65–70 / 4–8
SID: 40–44"

Knee AP

Position: Leg extended; 3–5° internal rotation; epicondyles parallel.
CR: By ASIS–table: <19 cm 3–5° caudad; 19–24 cm perp.; >24 cm 3–5° cephalad
Centering: ½" inferior to patellar apex
kVp / mAs: 70–75 / 8–12
SID: 40"

Knee lateral · Mediolateral

Position: Affected side down; knee flexed 20–30°.
CR: 5–7° cephalad
Centering: 1" distal to medial epicondyle
kVp / mAs: 70–75 / 8–12
SID: 40"

Knee medial / lateral oblique

Position: 45° internal or external rotation.
CR: Perpendicular
Centering: ½" inferior to patellar apex
kVp / mAs: 70–75 / 8–12
SID: 40"

Intercondylar fossa PA axial · Camp-Coventry

Position: Prone; knee flexed 40–50°.
CR: 40–50° caudad (match flexion)
Centering: Popliteal crease
kVp / mAs: 70–75 / 8–12
SID: 40"

Intercondylar fossa PA · Holmblad

Position: Kneeling; femur 70° from IR (20° from vertical).
CR: Perpendicular to lower leg
Centering: Popliteal crease
kVp / mAs: 70–75 / 8–12
SID: 40"

Intercondylar fossa AP axial · Béclère

Position: Supine; knee flexed 40–45°.
CR: 40–45° cephalad, perp. to lower leg
Centering: ½" inferior to patellar apex
kVp / mAs: 70–75 / 8–12
SID: 40"

Patella PA

Position: Prone; heel rotated 5–10° laterally (anterior knee ~5° internal).
CR: Perpendicular
Centering: Mid-patella
kVp / mAs: 70–75 / 6–10
SID: 40"

Patella tangential · Settegast / sunrise

Position: Knee flexed ≥90°; prone or seated.
CR: 15–20° cephalad to patellofemoral joint
Centering: Patellofemoral joint
kVp / mAs: 65–75 / 6–10
SID: 40"

Patella axial · Merchant

Position: Seated; knees flexed 40° over IR edge.
CR: 30° caudad from horizontal
Centering: Patellofemoral joint, midway between knees
kVp / mAs: 65–75 / 8–12
SID: 48–72"

Femur AP

Position: Leg internally rotated 15–20°; include hip or knee.
CR: Perpendicular
Centering: Mid-femur
kVp / mAs: 75–80 / 10–20
SID: 40"

Femur lateral

Position: True lateral of distal femur; do not frog a suspected proximal fracture.
CR: Perpendicular
Centering: Mid-femur
kVp / mAs: 75–80 / 10–20
SID: 40"

Hip AP

Position: Supine; 15–20° internal rotation unless fracture is suspected.
CR: Perpendicular
Centering: Femoral neck (1–2" medial and 3–4" distal to ASIS)
kVp / mAs: 80–85 / 15–40
SID: 40"

Hip frog-leg · Modified Cleaves

Position: Hip abducted 40–45°; contraindicated in trauma.
CR: Perpendicular
Centering: Femoral neck
kVp / mAs: 80–85 / 15–40
SID: 40"

Axiolateral hip · Danelius-Miller

Position: Unaffected leg flexed and elevated; IR in crease above iliac crest.
CR: Horizontal, perpendicular to femoral neck
Centering: Femoral neck
kVp / mAs: 80–90 / 32–80
SID: 40"

Modified axiolateral hip · Clements-Nakayama

Position: Bilateral hip injury; IR tilted 15°; grid parallel to neck.
CR: 15° posteriorly from horizontal
Centering: Femoral neck
kVp / mAs: 80–90 / 32–80
SID: 40"

Spine, Sacrum & Pelvis

C-spine AP axial

Position: Erect preferred; occlusal plane perp. to IR; chin elevated.
CR: 15–20° cephalad
Centering: C4
kVp / mAs: 75–80 / 8–12
SID: 40"

AP open-mouth · Odontoid

Position: Occlusal plane perpendicular to IR; mouth open.
CR: Perpendicular
Centering: Center of open mouth
kVp / mAs: 75–80 / 10–16
SID: 40"

AP dens · Fuchs

Position: MML perpendicular to IR; chin elevated.
CR: Parallel to MML
Centering: Just distal to chin tip
kVp / mAs: 75–85 / 12–20
SID: 40"

C-spine lateral · Grandy

Position: Erect; shoulders depressed; 72" SID; expiration.
CR: Perpendicular (horizontal beam for trauma)
Centering: C4
kVp / mAs: 75–85 / 16–32
SID: 72"

C-spine posterior oblique

Position: 45° RPO/LPO; upside intervertebral foramina.
CR: 15–20° cephalad
Centering: C4
kVp / mAs: 75–80 / 10–16
SID: 40–72"

Cervicothoracic lateral · Swimmer / Twining

Position: Arm nearest IR up; opposite arm down and slightly posterior.
CR: Perpendicular (3–5° caudad if needed)
Centering: C7–T1
kVp / mAs: 80–90 / 32–64
SID: 40–72"

T-spine AP

Position: Supine or erect; anode toward head (heel effect); flex knees.
CR: Perpendicular
Centering: T7 (3–4" below jugular notch)
kVp / mAs: 80–85 / 12–25
SID: 40"

T-spine lateral

Position: Left lateral; arms forward; breathing technique.
CR: Perpendicular (or 10–15° cephalad if not supported)
Centering: T7
kVp / mAs: 80–90 / 25–50
SID: 40–48"

L-spine AP

Position: Supine; knees flexed; MSP to midline.
CR: Perpendicular
Centering: Iliac crest (L4–L5)
kVp / mAs: 80–90 / 20–40
SID: 40"

L-spine oblique · Scottie dog

Position: 45° RPO/LPO; downside zygapophyseal joints.
CR: Perpendicular
Centering: 1.5" above crest, 2" medial to upside ASIS
kVp / mAs: 80–90 / 20–40
SID: 40"

L-spine lateral

Position: True lateral; knees stacked; sponge under waist if needed.
CR: Perpendicular (5–8° caudad if waist unsupported)
Centering: Iliac crest
kVp / mAs: 85–95 / 40–80
SID: 40"

L5–S1 spot lateral

Position: True lateral lumbar position, collimated to lumbosacral junction.
CR: Perpendicular (5–8° caudad if waist unsupported)
Centering: 1.5" inferior to iliac crest, 2" posterior to ASIS
kVp / mAs: 90–100 / 40–80
SID: 40"

Scoliosis PA/AP (whole spine)

Position: Standing, weight even on both feet, MSP to long IR; PA preferred (less breast/thyroid dose).
CR: Perpendicular, horizontal beam
Centering: MSP; C7 through iliac crests included (about T10–T12)
kVp / mAs: 85–95 / 15–30
SID: 60–72"

Scoliosis lateral (whole spine)

Position: Standing lateral, convex side to IR; arms raised or crossed to clear the spine.
CR: Perpendicular, horizontal beam
Centering: Midcoronal plane; C7 through sacrum included
kVp / mAs: 90–100 / 40–80
SID: 60–72"

Scoliosis block / bending views · Ferguson; R & L lateral bending

Position: Ferguson: 3–4" block under the foot (or hip) on the convex side. Bending: PA or AP, maximum lateral bend to each side, pelvis still.
CR: Perpendicular
Centering: Same as the scoliosis PA/AP
kVp / mAs: 85–95 / 15–30
SID: 60–72"

Sacrum AP axial

Position: Supine; knees flexed slightly.
CR: 15° cephalad
Centering: 2" superior to pubic symphysis
kVp / mAs: 80–90 / 16–32
SID: 40"

Coccyx AP axial

Position: Supine; bladder empty if possible.
CR: 10° caudad
Centering: 2" superior to pubic symphysis
kVp / mAs: 75–85 / 12–20
SID: 40"

Sacrum / coccyx lateral

Position: True lateral; hips stacked.
CR: Perpendicular
Centering: 3–4" posterior to ASIS (sacrum) or 2" distal (coccyx)
kVp / mAs: 85–95 / 40–80
SID: 40"

SI joints AP axial

Position: Supine.
CR: 30–35° cephalad
Centering: 2" below ASIS, MSP
kVp / mAs: 80–90 / 16–32
SID: 40"

SI joints oblique

Position: 25–30° RPO/LPO; upside joint (LPO shows right SI).
CR: Perpendicular
Centering: 1" medial to upside ASIS
kVp / mAs: 80–90 / 16–32
SID: 40"

Pelvis AP

Position: Supine; 15–20° internal rotation of feet unless trauma.
CR: Perpendicular
Centering: Midway between ASIS and pubic symphysis
kVp / mAs: 80–85 / 20–40
SID: 40"

Pelvic inlet

Position: Supine.
CR: 40° caudad
Centering: ASIS, MSP
kVp / mAs: 80–90 / 20–40
SID: 40"

Pelvic outlet · Taylor

Position: Supine.
CR: 20–35° cephalad (♂) or 30–45° cephalad (♀)
Centering: 1–2" distal to pubic symphysis, MSP
kVp / mAs: 80–90 / 20–40
SID: 40"

Acetabulum posterior oblique · Judet

Position: 45° posterior oblique; downside = anterior rim / posterior column.
CR: Perpendicular
Centering: 2" distal and 2" medial to downside ASIS (or 2" distal to upside ASIS)
kVp / mAs: 80–85 / 16–40
SID: 40"

Chest, Bony Thorax & Ribs

PA chest

Position: Erect, facing IR; shoulders rolled forward; 2nd full inspiration.
CR: Perpendicular
Centering: T7 (inferior scapular angle)
kVp / mAs: 110–125 / 2–8
SID: 72"

Lateral chest

Position: Left lateral erect; arms raised; MCP to midline.
CR: Perpendicular
Centering: T7, MCP
kVp / mAs: 110–125 / 4–16
SID: 72"

AP lordotic chest · Lindblom

Position: Patient 1 ft from IR, leaned back; or erect AP with CR angle.
CR: Perpendicular if lordotic, or 15–20° cephalad
Centering: Mid-sternum / T7
kVp / mAs: 110–125 / 4–12
SID: 72"

Lateral decubitus chest

Position: Affected side down for fluid, up for air; 5 minutes if possible.
CR: Horizontal beam, perpendicular to IR
Centering: T7
kVp / mAs: 110–125 / 4–12
SID: 40–72"

AP stretcher / portable chest

Position: As erect as tolerated; cassette behind back.
CR: Caudad to be perp. to sternum (≈5°)
Centering: 3" below jugular notch (T7)
kVp / mAs: 90–120 / 2–8
SID: 40–72"

Soft-tissue neck lateral

Position: Erect; slow inspiration through nose.
CR: Perpendicular
Centering: C4–C6 (laryngeal prominence)
kVp / mAs: 70–80 / 8–12
SID: 72"

Sternum RAO

Position: 15–20° RAO; breathing technique or expiration.
CR: Perpendicular
Centering: Center of sternum (1" left of MSP, midsternum)
kVp / mAs: 70–80 / 20–40 (breathing)
SID: 40"

Sternum lateral

Position: Erect; shoulders back; inspiration.
CR: Perpendicular
Centering: Mid-sternum
kVp / mAs: 75–85 / 16–32
SID: 40–72"

SC joints PA / RAO-LAO

Position: PA then 10–15° anterior oblique; head turned from side of interest.
CR: Perpendicular
Centering: T2–T3 (3" distal to vertebra prominens)
kVp / mAs: 70–75 / 8–12
SID: 40"

Upper ribs AP/PA

Position: Erect preferred; inspiration; arms abducted.
CR: Perpendicular
Centering: T7
kVp / mAs: 70–80 / 10–20
SID: 40"

Lower ribs AP

Position: Recumbent preferred; expiration.
CR: Perpendicular
Centering: Midway between xiphoid and lower rib margin
kVp / mAs: 75–85 / 12–25
SID: 40"

Axillary ribs oblique

Position: 45° RPO/LPO (posterior pain) or RAO/LAO (anterior pain); affected side elongated.
CR: Perpendicular
Centering: T7 (upper) or midway xiphoid–lower ribs (lower)
kVp / mAs: 70–80 / 12–25
SID: 40"

Skull, Facial Bones & Orbits

Skull PA axial · Caldwell

Position: OML perpendicular to IR; forehead and nose on IR.
CR: 15° caudad
Centering: Nasion
kVp / mAs: 75–85 / 12–20
SID: 40"

Skull AP axial · Towne

Position: OML perp. (or IOML perp. with 37° angle).
CR: 30° caudad to OML (37° to IOML)
Centering: 2.5" above glabella
kVp / mAs: 80–85 / 16–25
SID: 40"

Skull lateral

Position: True lateral; IPL perp.; IOML parallel to long axis of IR.
CR: Perpendicular
Centering: 2" superior to EAM
kVp / mAs: 75–85 / 10–16
SID: 40"

Skull SMV · Schüller

Position: IOML parallel to IR; vertex on IR.
CR: Perpendicular to IOML
Centering: 1.5" inferior to mandibular symphysis
kVp / mAs: 80–90 / 20–32
SID: 40"

Facial bones parietoacanthial · Waters

Position: MML perpendicular; OML 37° to IR.
CR: Perpendicular
Centering: Acanthion
kVp / mAs: 75–85 / 12–20
SID: 40"

Modified Waters

Position: LML perpendicular; OML ≈55° to IR (less extension).
CR: Perpendicular
Centering: Acanthion
kVp / mAs: 75–85 / 12–20
SID: 40"

Facial bones lateral

Position: True lateral; affected side against IR.
CR: Perpendicular
Centering: Zygoma (midway EAM and outer canthus)
kVp / mAs: 70–80 / 8–12
SID: 40"

Nasal bones lateral

Position: True lateral; both sides usually obtained.
CR: Perpendicular
Centering: ½" inferior to nasion
kVp / mAs: 50–60 / 1–3
SID: 40"

Zygomatic arches SMV

Position: IOML parallel to IR; reduce exposure vs skull SMV.
CR: Perpendicular to IOML
Centering: 1.5" inferior to mandibular symphysis
kVp / mAs: 70–80 / 8–12
SID: 40"

Zygomatic arch tangential · May

Position: SMV base; rotate head 15° toward side; tilt chin 15° toward side.
CR: Perpendicular to IOML
Centering: Zygomatic arch of interest
kVp / mAs: 70–80 / 6–10
SID: 40"

Mandible PA

Position: Forehead and nose on IR, OML perp. (rami); nose only, AML perp. (body).
CR: Perpendicular (or 20–25° cephalad for rami)
Centering: Junction of lips (body) or acanthion (rami)
kVp / mAs: 75–80 / 10–16
SID: 40"

Mandible axiolateral oblique

Position: Head in true lateral; rotate toward IR 0° (ramus), 30° (body), 45° (mentum); 10–15° survey.
CR: 25° cephalad (or 25° head tilt)
Centering: Downside mandible
kVp / mAs: 75–80 / 8–12
SID: 40"

Mandible AP axial · Towne

Position: OML perp.
CR: 35–42° caudad
Centering: Glabella
kVp / mAs: 80–85 / 16–25
SID: 40"

TMJ AP axial · Modified Towne

Position: OML perp.; open- and closed-mouth.
CR: 35° caudad
Centering: 3" above nasion
kVp / mAs: 75–85 / 12–20
SID: 40"

TMJ axiolateral · Schüller

Position: True lateral skull; open- and closed-mouth.
CR: 25–30° caudad
Centering: ½" anterior and 2" superior to upside EAM
kVp / mAs: 75–85 / 10–16
SID: 40"

TMJ axiolateral oblique · Law

Position: Rotate face 15° toward IR.
CR: 15° caudad
Centering: 1.5" superior to upside EAM
kVp / mAs: 75–85 / 10–16
SID: 40"

Orbits parieto-orbital oblique · Rhese

Position: Three-point landing (chin, cheek, nose); AML perp.; 37° from PA / 53° from lateral.
CR: Perpendicular
Centering: Downside orbit
kVp / mAs: 75–80 / 10–16
SID: 40"

Sinuses PA axial · Caldwell

Position: Erect; OML 15° to CR (horizontal beam).
CR: Horizontal, exit nasion
Centering: Nasion
kVp / mAs: 75–85 / 12–20
SID: 40"

Sinuses parietoacanthial · Waters

Position: Erect; MML perp.; horizontal beam.
CR: Horizontal, exit acanthion
Centering: Acanthion
kVp / mAs: 75–85 / 12–20
SID: 40"

Sinuses open-mouth Waters · Pirie

Position: Waters position with mouth open for sphenoid.
CR: Horizontal, exit acanthion
Centering: Acanthion
kVp / mAs: 75–85 / 12–20
SID: 40"

Sinuses lateral

Position: Erect true lateral; horizontal beam.
CR: Horizontal, perpendicular
Centering: ½–1" posterior to outer canthus
kVp / mAs: 70–80 / 8–12
SID: 40"

← Back to tools